5  Student pre-course preparation

Create Methods and technology Community of practice

5.1 Lectures

To ensure students have the required background in plant functional and climate change ecology and the methodologies, students are assigned readings before the course. During earlier iterations, readings were merely assigned, but as the course evolved we shifted to a more active model where students read papers and then discuss them within their groups. Readings include foundational papers for trait-based ecology, background on the study region, and at least one paper that helps understand the work going on in each group. In addition to these general readings, students are assigned several papers focused on their particular group.

Background on the places and experiments is in Alpine ecosystems, the Three-D project, and the INCLINE project. The reading records are in course_papers.bib. Add a paper there, then add its key under the course it belongs to.

The same foundational papers were assigned as general reading on almost every course. They are listed once. Open a course to see the background that was specific to that place, and the papers for each group.

Shared general reading, PFTC 2–7

(Boeck et al. 2015; Lavorel and Garnier 2002; McGill et al. 2006; Violle et al. 2012; Pérez-Harguindeguy et al. 2013; Reich 2014)

Pérez-Harguindeguy et al. (2013) was not on the PFTC 6 general list. Reich (2014) was not on the PFTC 2 general list.

PFTC 1China
Group Readings
General ?
2. Leaf ecophysiology (Diemer and Korner 1996; Korner and Diemer 1987; Mahan and Upchurch 1988; Michaletz et al. 2015)
PFTC 2China
Group Readings
General, in addition to the shared list (Enquist et al. 2015; Guittar et al. 2016; Michaletz et al. 2015)
PFTC 3Peru
Group Readings
General, in addition to the shared list (Forrestel et al. 2017; Michaletz et al. 2016; Oliveras et al. 2014; Urrego et al. 2011)
1. Plant traits along an elevation gradient (fire?) (Enquist et al. 2017a, 2015)
2. Leaf ecophysiology (Berry and Bjorkman 1980; Michaletz et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2017; Yamori et al. 2014)
3. NA N/A
4. Ecosystem CO2 fluxes (Everwand et al. 2014; Goud et al. 2017; Metcalfe et al. 2011)
PFTC 4Svalbard
Group Readings
General, in addition to the shared list (Asner et al. 2017a; Bockmühl 2008; Elberling 2007; Forrestel et al. 2017; Ingolfsson 2004; Jetz et al. 2016; Jónsdóttir 2005)
1. Plant traits along an elevation gradient and with warming. 1b Polyploidy in Saxifraga (Enquist et al. 2017a, 2015)
2. Leaf ecophysiology (Berry and Bjorkman 1980; Michaletz et al. 2015; Rogers et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2017; Yamori et al. 2014)
3. Plant and bryophytes traits along a nutrient gradient (Ellis 2005; Kichenin et al. 2013; Lepš et al. 2011; Siefert et al. 2015; Zmudczynska et al. 2008)
4. Ecosystem CO2 fluxes (Everwand et al. 2014; Goud et al. 2017; Hudson et al. 2011; Metcalfe et al. 2011; Virkkala et al. 2018)
5. Remote sensing of plant traits (Asner et al. 2017a; Assmann et al. 2019; Bratsch et al. 2016; Davidson et al. 2016; Juutinen et al. 2017; Schneider et al. 2017; Schweiger et al. 2018; Thomson et al. 2018; Zagajewski et al. 2017)
PFTC 5Peru
Group Readings
General, in addition to the shared list (Carbone and Aguilar 2016; Forrestel et al. 2014; Funk et al. 2017; Garnier et al. 2016; Halbritter et al. 2019; Michaletz et al. 2016; Serbin and Townsend 2019)
1. Intraspecific trait variability (Henn et al. 2018; Lepš et al. 2011; Midolo et al. 2019; Siefert et al. 2015; Treurnicht et al. 2019)
2. Leaf ecophysiology (Berry and Bjorkman 1980; Michaletz 2018; Michaletz et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2017; Yamori et al. 2014)
3. Trait responses to fire (Bond and Keeley 2005; Calitz et al. 2015; Forrestel et al. 2014; Pausas and Keeley 2009; Schwilk and Caprio 2011; Scott et al. 2013; Spasojevic et al. 2010)
4. Ecosystem CO2 fluxes (Arnone and Obrist 2003; Díaz and Cabido 2001; Jasoni et al. 2005; Lavorel and Garnier 2002; Oliver et al. 2017; Potts et al. 2012; Román‐Cuesta and Carmona‐Moreno 2014; Saleska et al. 1999, 2002)
5. Remote sensing of plant traits (Anderson and Gaston 2013; Asner et al. 2017b, 2017a; Assmann et al. 2019; Blonder, Graae, et al. 2020; Doughty et al. 2017; Durán et al. 2019; Pajares 2015; Serbin and Townsend 2019; Thomson et al. 2018)
PFTC 6Norway
Group Readings
General, in addition to the shared list (Austrheim and Eriksson 2001; Enquist et al. 2017a; Funk et al. 2017; Green et al. 2022; Halbritter et al. 2019; B. Maitner et al., n.d.; Michaletz et al. 2016; Powers and Hampton 2019; Serbin and Townsend 2019; Sørensen et al. 2018, 2019; V. Vandvik et al. 2020)
1. Intraspecific trait variability (Bjorkman et al. 2018; Henn et al. 2018; Hudson et al. 2011; Siefert et al. 2015; Treurnicht et al. 2019)
2. Trait responses to global change (Bjorkman et al. 2018; Green et al. 2022; Kühn et al. 2021; Vuorinen et al. 2021)
3. Leaf ecophysiology (Berry and Bjorkman 1980; Blonder, Escobar, et al. 2020; Korner and Diemer 1987; Michaletz 2018; Wang et al. 2017)
4. Ecosystem CO2 fluxes (Chersich et al. 2016; Hagedorn et al. 2010; Sørensen et al. 2019; Strimbeck et al. 2019; Zhu et al. 2015)
5. Remote sensing of plant traits (Anderson and Gaston 2013; Cunliffe et al. 2022; Durán et al. 2019; Serbin and Townsend 2019; Thomson et al. 2021)
6. Science communication ?
PFTC 7South Africa
Group Readings
General, in addition to the shared list (Adelabu et al. 2020; Bentley et al. 2019; Carbutt 2012, 2019; Deus Vidal et al. 2021; Enquist et al. 2017b; Funk et al. 2017; Gallagher et al. 2020; Halbritter et al. 2019; B. S. Maitner et al. 2023; Michaletz et al. 2016; Mucina et al. 2006; Powers and Hampton 2019; Serbin and Townsend 2019; Sørensen et al. 2019; Vandvik et al. 2023; Zaloumis and Bond 2016)
1. Traits along gradients (Henn et al. 2018; Kemppinen et al. 2021; Kühn et al. 2021; Siefert et al. 2015)
2. Leaf ecophysiology (Berry and Bjorkman 1980; Blonder, Escobar, et al. 2020; Garen and Michaletz 2024; Korner and Diemer 1987; Michaletz et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2017; Yamori et al. 2014)
3. Ecosystem CO2 fluxes (Jasoni et al. 2005; Sloat et al. 2015; Sørensen et al. 2019; Strimbeck et al. 2019; Zhu et al. 2015)
Background and methodology and theory (physics) for measuring CO2 and H2O tent fluxes Enquist and Brummer, see the flux notes and the methods document
4a Leaf spectroscopy (Kothari et al. 2023; Kothari and Schweiger 2022; Serbin et al. 2012; Serbin and Townsend 2019; Thomson et al. 2021)
4b Below-ground traits (Freschet et al. 2021; Lombardi et al. 2021; Ottaviani et al. 2020; Weigelt et al. 2021)

5.2 Online lectures

We include lectures on core subjects as part of each course. During our earlier courses, these were included in the beginning of each course. However, we found that this was a sub-optimal approach, as it cut into time available for field work and analysis, and participants were often suffering from severe jet lag. In response, we now hold the background lectures online in the months before the course, increasing time in the field and giving the students the necessary background information sooner (Geange et al., 2021).

Open a course to see the lectures. P is pre-course and D is during the course. A star marks a lecture added because of the COVID lockdown in Peru. No lecture topics were recorded for PFTC 1.

To let people watch a lecture or open the slides, add a link in the Materials column: [Video](https://...) or [Slides](https://...). Leave the cell empty when there is nothing to link yet.

PFTC 1China

No lecture topics were recorded for this course.

PFTC 2China
Topic When Materials
Welcome — introducing the themes of PFTC2 2016, with background, goals and expectations, and the sponsors D
Intro to trait based ecology D
Approaches to studying climate change impacts on plants and ecosystems D
Plant energy budgets and homeothermy: energetics, trait-environment interactions, and carbon economics D
Climate change impacts on ecosystem carbon dynamics D
PFTC 3Peru
Topic When Materials
Introduction to course D
Climate change ecology in alpine regions, ecology along gradients, and how the Peru course fits in D
Introduction to trait based ecology; trait driver theory D
Overview of natural history, vegetation history of Peru and the research sites, Puna vegetation D
Introduction to tropical forests, research along (elevation) gradients in tropical forests D
Manu National Park, challenges, climate change, and research D
Introduction to carbon flux and ecosystem response to global change D
Introduction to leaf functional traits and leaf physiology D
Introduction to fire ecology in general and why it is important; the role of fire and grazing in the Puna D
Collecting ecological data, setting up experiments, etc. D
Sustainable and reproducible coding, tracking changes, data documentation, data management D
PFTC 4Svalbard
Topic When Materials
Introduction to PFTC4 — aims, workflow, responsibilities, outcomes D
Climate change ecology in alpine regions: experiments, gradients, and how the Svalbard course fits in D
Introduction to trait based ecology; trait driver theory D
Introduction to Svalbard and climate change in the arctic D
OTC, ITEX site D
Snowfence experiment D
Flux course D
Introduction to drones D
Introduction to carbon flux and ecosystem response to global change D
Introduction to leaf functional traits and leaf physiology D
How to calculate and interpret community metrics from trait and compositional data D
Collecting ecological trait data, reproducible coding, how to import, clean and plot data, data checking D
Science communication D
PFTC 5Peru
Topic When Materials
The ecology and natural history of the Puna Slides
Theory, background, and status of trait-based ecology Slides Video
Trait-based approaches in experiments and observational studies Slides Video
Trait-based approaches to leaf thermoregulation Slides Video
Trait-based approaches using remote sensing Slides
Introduction to the Andes to Amazon elevational gradient and ecology and natural history of the area Video, part 1 Video, part 2
Authorship guidelines, proposing new papers, collaboration within the group D*
Pseudocode and trait distributions D* Video
How to download previous PFTC data and data exploration D* Video
Data curation and validation D* Slides Video
PFTC 6Norway
Topic When Materials
Welcome, introductions, trait based ecology P
Alpine ecosystems in Norway, overview of projects P
Intraspecific trait variation; global change; science communication P
Leaf temperature and physiology, remote sensing, carbon fluxes P
PFTC 7South Africa
Topic When Materials
Welcome, introductions, overview of PFTC 7 projects, trait based ecology, and student perspective of PFTC P
Outcomes of previous courses P
Alpine ecosystems in South Africa, research in the alpine grasslands P
Leaf temperature and physiology, remote sensing, carbon fluxes P

5.3 Pre-course discussions

In addition to pre-course readings and lectures, later iterations of the course included virtual sessions where groups met to discuss readings, design their studies, and begin writing data documentation. Initial iterations had pre-defined research projects, but in later iterations we’ve involved students to a greater extent in the planning phase. By allowing the students to direct the research (within certain constraints), our goal is to give them a greater sense of agency and ownership of their project, as well as exposing them to more of the data life cycle, from planning all the way to publication. This phase of the course utilizes a variety of online tools, including email, Slack, Google Docs, Github, and Zoom/Skype/Teams.

Adelabu et al. 2020.
Anderson, and Gaston. 2013. “Lightweight Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Will Revolutionize Spatial Ecology.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 11: 138–46. https://doi.org/10.1890/120150.
Arnone, and Obrist. 2003. “A Large Daylight Geodesic Dome for Quantification of Whole-Ecosystem CO2 and Water Vapour Fluxes in Arid Shrublands.” Journal of Arid Environments 55: 629–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1963(02)00291-4.
Asner et al. 2017a. “Airborne Laser-Guided Imaging Spectroscopy to Map Forest Trait Diversity and Guide Conservation.” Science 355: 385–89. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaj1987.
——— et al. 2017b.
Assmann et al. 2019.
Austrheim, and Eriksson. 2001. “Plant Species Diversity and Grazing in the Scandinavian Mountains ‐ Patterns and Processes at Different Spatial Scales.” Ecography 24: 683–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2001.tb00530.x.
Bentley et al. 2019.
Berry, and Bjorkman. 1980. “Photosynthetic Response and Adaptation to Temperature in Higher Plants.” Annual Review of Plant Physiology 31: 491–543. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pp.31.060180.002423.
Bjorkman et al. 2018.
Blonder, Escobar, et al. 2020. “Low Predictability of Energy Balance Traits and Leaf Temperature Metrics in Desert, Montane and Alpine Plant Communities.” Functional Ecology 34: 1882–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13643.
Blonder, Graae, et al. 2020.
Bockmühl. 2008.
Boeck, De et al. 2015. “Global Change Experiments: Challenges and Opportunities.” BioScience 65: 922–31. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biv099.
Bond, and Keeley. 2005. “Fire as a Global ‘Herbivore’: The Ecology and Evolution of Flammable Ecosystems.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20: 387–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.04.025.
Bratsch et al. 2016. “Differentiating Among Four Arctic Tundra Plant Communities at Ivotuk, Alaska Using Field Spectroscopy.” Remote Sensing 8: 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8010051.
Calitz et al. 2015.
Carbone, and Aguilar. 2016. “Contrasting Effects of Fire Frequency on Plant Traits of Three Dominant Perennial Herbs from Chaco Serrano.” Austral Ecology 41: 778–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.12364.
Carbutt. 2012. “The Emerging Invasive Alien Plants of the Drakensberg Alpine Centre, Southern Africa.” Bothalia 42: 71–85. https://doi.org/10.4102/abc.v42i2.10.
———. 2019. “The Drakensberg Mountain Centre: A Necessary Revision of Southern Africa’s High-Elevation Centre of Plant Endemism.” South African Journal of Botany 124: 508–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.05.032.
Chersich et al. 2016.
Cunliffe et al. 2022.
Davidson et al. 2016.
Deus Vidal, de et al. 2021.
Díaz, and Cabido. 2001. “Vive La Différence: Plant Functional Diversity Matters to Ecosystem Processes.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16: 646–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02283-2.
Diemer, and Korner. 1996. “Lifetime Leaf Carbon Balances of Herbaceous Perennial Plants from Low and High Altitudes in the Central Alps.” Functional Ecology 10: 33. https://doi.org/10.2307/2390259.
Doughty et al. 2017.
Durán et al. 2019.
Elberling. 2007.
Ellis. 2005.
Enquist et al. 2015.
——— et al. 2017a.
——— et al. 2017b.
Everwand et al. 2014.
Forrestel et al. 2014. “Convergent Phylogenetic and Functional Responses to Altered Fire Regimes in Mesic Savanna Grasslands of North America and South Africa.” New Phytologist 203: 1000–1011. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12846.
——— et al. 2017.
Freschet et al. 2021. “Root Traits as Drivers of Plant and Ecosystem Functioning: Current Understanding, Pitfalls and Future Research Needs.” New Phytologist 232: 1123–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17072.
Funk et al. 2017.
Gallagher et al. 2020.
Garen, and Michaletz. 2024.
Garnier et al. 2016.
Goud et al. 2017.
Green et al. 2022.
Guittar et al. 2016. “Can Trait Patterns Along Gradients Predict Plant Community Responses to Climate Change?” Ecology 97: 2791–801. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1500.
Hagedorn et al. 2010.
Halbritter et al. 2019. “The Handbook for Standardized Field and Laboratory Measurements in Terrestrial Climate Change Experiments and Observational Studies (ClimEx).” Methods in Ecology and Evolution 11: 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.13331.
Henn et al. 2018. “Intraspecific Trait Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity Mediate Alpine Plant Species Response to Climate Change.” Frontiers in Plant Science 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01548.
Hudson et al. 2011.
Ingolfsson. 2004.
Jasoni et al. 2005. “Net Ecosystem CO 2 Exchange in Mojave Desert Shrublands During the Eighth Year of Exposure to Elevated CO 2.” Global Change Biology 11: 749–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.00948.x.
Jetz et al. 2016. “Monitoring Plant Functional Diversity from Space.” Nature Plants 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2016.24.
Jónsdóttir. 2005.
Juutinen et al. 2017. “Spatial Variation and Seasonal Dynamics of Leaf-Area Index in the Arctic Tundra-Implications for Linking Ground Observations and Satellite Images.” Environmental Research Letters 12: 095002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7f85.
Kemppinen et al. 2021.
Kichenin et al. 2013. “Contrasting Effects of Plant Inter‐ and Intraspecific Variation on Community‐level Trait Measures Along an Environmental Gradient.” Functional Ecology 27: 1254–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12116.
Korner, and Diemer. 1987. “In Situ Photosynthetic Responses to Light, Temperature and Carbon Dioxide in Herbaceous Plants from Low and High Altitude.” Functional Ecology 1: 179. https://doi.org/10.2307/2389420.
Kothari et al. 2023.
Kothari, and Schweiger. 2022. “Plant Spectra as Integrative Measures of Plant Phenotypes.” Journal of Ecology 110: 2536–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13972.
Kühn et al. 2021.
Lavorel, and Garnier. 2002. “Predicting Changes in Community Composition and Ecosystem Functioning from Plant Traits: Revisiting the Holy Grail.” Functional Ecology 16: 545–56. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2435.2002.00664.x.
Lepš et al. 2011. “Community Trait Response to Environment: Disentangling Species Turnover Vs Intraspecific Trait Variability Effects.” Ecography 34: 856–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06904.x.
Lombardi et al. 2021.
Mahan, and Upchurch. 1988. “Maintenance of Constant Leaf Temperature by Plants—i. Hypothesis-Limited Homeothermy.” Environmental and Experimental Botany 28: 351–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-8472(88)90059-7.
Maitner, B. et al. n.d.
Maitner, B. S. et al. 2023. “Bootstrapping Outperforms Community-Weighted Approaches for Estimating the Shapes of Phenotypic Distributions.”
McGill et al. 2006. “Rebuilding Community Ecology from Functional Traits.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21: 178–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2006.02.002.
Metcalfe et al. 2011.
Michaletz et al. 2015. “Plant Thermoregulation: Energetics, Trait–Environment Interactions, and Carbon Economics.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 30: 714–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2015.09.006.
——— et al. 2016. “The Energetic and Carbon Economic Origins of Leaf Thermoregulation.” Nature Plants 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2016.129.
Michaletz. 2018.
Midolo et al. 2019. “Global Patterns of Intraspecific Leaf Trait Responses to Elevation.” Global Change Biology 25: 2485–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14646.
Mucina et al. 2006.
Oliver et al. 2017.
Oliveras et al. 2014.
Ottaviani et al. 2020.
Pajares. 2015.
Pausas, and Keeley. 2009. “A Burning Story: The Role of Fire in the History of Life.” BioScience 59: 593–601. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.7.10.
Pérez-Harguindeguy, N, S Dı́az, E Garnier, S Lavorel, H Poorter, P Jaureguiberry, M S Bret-Harte, et al. 2013. “New Handbook for Standardised Measurement of Plant Functional Traits Worldwide.” Australian Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.1071/BT12225.
Potts et al. 2012.
Powers, and Hampton. 2019. “Open Science, Reproducibility, and Transparency in Ecology.” Ecological Applications 29. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1822.
Reich. 2014. “The World‐wide ‘Fast–Slow’ Plant Economics Spectrum: A Traits Manifesto.” Journal of Ecology 102: 275–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12211.
Rogers et al. 2017.
Román‐Cuesta, and Carmona‐Moreno. 2014. “Synchronous Fire Activity in the Tropical High Andes: An Indication of Regional Climate Forcing.” Global Change Biology 20: 1929–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12538.
Saleska et al. 1999. “The Effect of Experimental Ecosystem Warming on CO2 Fluxes in a Montane Meadow.” Global Change Biology 5: 125–41. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.1999.00216.x.
——— et al. 2002. “Plant Community Composition Mediates Both Large Transient Decline and Predicted Long‐term Recovery of Soil Carbon Under Climate Warming.” Global Biogeochemical Cycles 16. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001gb001573.
Schneider et al. 2017.
Schweiger et al. 2018.
Schwilk, and Caprio. 2011. “Scaling from Leaf Traits to Fire Behaviour: Community Composition Predicts Fire Severity in a Temperate Forest.” Journal of Ecology 99: 970–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01828.x.
Scott et al. 2013.
Serbin et al. 2012.
Serbin, and Townsend. 2019. “From the Arctic to the Tropics: Multibiome Prediction of Leaf Mass Per Area Using Leaf Reflectance.” New Phytologist 224: 1557–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16123.
Siefert et al. 2015.
Sloat et al. 2015. “The Effect of the Foresummer Drought on Carbon Exchange in Subalpine Meadows.” Ecosystems 18: 533–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-015-9845-1.
Sørensen et al. 2018.
——— et al. 2019.
Spasojevic et al. 2010.
Strimbeck et al. 2019. “Functional Group Contributions to Carbon Fluxes in Arctic-Alpine Ecosystems.” Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 51: 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2019.1578163.
Thomson et al. 2018.
——— et al. 2021. “Multiscale Mapping of Plant Functional Groups and Plant Traits in the High Arctic Using Field Spectroscopy, UAV Imagery and Sentinel-2A Data.” Environmental Research Letters 16 (5): 055006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abf464.
Treurnicht et al. 2019. “Functional Traits Explain the Hutchinsonian Niches of Plant Species.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 29: 534–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13048.
Urrego et al. 2011. “Pollen-Vegetation Relationships Along Steep Climatic Gradients in Western Amazonia.” Journal of Vegetation Science 22: 795–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2011.01289.x.
Vandvik et al. 2023. “Plant Traits and Associated Data from a Warming Experiment, a Seabird Colony, and Along Elevation in Svalbard.” Scientific Data 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-023-02467-7.
Vandvik, Vigdis, Olav Skarpaas, Kari Klanderud, Richard J Telford, Aud H Halbritter, and Deborah E Goldberg. 2020. “Biotic Rescaling Reveals Importance of Species Interactions for Variation in Biodiversity Responses to Climate Change.” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 117 (37): 22858–65.
Violle et al. 2012. “The Return of the Variance: Intraspecific Variability in Community Ecology.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 27: 244–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.11.014.
Virkkala et al. 2018.
Vuorinen et al. 2021.
Wang et al. 2017.
Weigelt et al. 2021.
Yamori et al. 2014.
Zagajewski et al. 2017. “Intraspecific Differences in Spectral Reflectance Curves as Indicators of Reduced Vitality in High-Arctic Plants.” Remote Sensing 9: 1289. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs9121289.
Zaloumis, and Bond. 2016. “Reforestation or Conservation? The Attributes of Old Growth Grasslands in South Africa.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 371: 20150310. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0310.
Zhu et al. 2015.
Zmudczynska et al. 2008.